Naqsh: The Art of Wood Carving of Traditional Houses of Gujarat: Focus on Ornamentation more

Published by Research Cell School of Interior Design, C.E.P.T. Kasturbhai Lalbhai Campus Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology University Road, Navrangpura Ahmedabad 380009 Gujarat India www.cept.ac.in © 2004 Research Cell, S.I.D, C.E.P.T. and Jay Thakkar Book Design by Jay Thakkar jaythakkar@naqshatra.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, any form or by any means including photocopying and word processing, or distributed in return for the payment or by public lending without the prior written permission of the copyright owner and publisher and subject to copyright laws. ISBN 81-7525-285-5 Published in India in 2004. Processed and printed by Mayank Bhatt, India. n a q s h                       Foreward Most of the time, we have documentation or books on public buildings mainly made of stone or concrete or even wood. Often the documents describe functions, spaces, forms and overall expression. There is another dimension that makes all the historical buildings. It is the detailing of those buildings. By detailing I don’t mean only the construction technology but also the way the elements are put together. The way materials express themselves including the forces of stability. Yet there is another dimension to these details, that is the moderation of their surfaces, the way the craftsman has understood it and the way the craftsman is expressing his cultural and personal understanding of his world. What he is trying to do is to discover and express the spirit of the material as he sees it. He, in short spiritualises the material (matter). This book, exhaustive in its explorations of minute details has another We find many examples of such works expressed through marble, stone, brick, earth, wood etc. in regions predominant in that material. Gujarat by its geographical location has prominently stone, brick or wood and the craftsman have explained these materials either singularly or in combination. Yet, when we see these, we look at these buildings in their overall form and often overlook the subtle craftsmanship shown in the articulation of their combinations and expressions. We also find that the nuances of these expressions vary when cultural influences overlap. For example, in Gujarat we discover that Islamic and Hindu motives are intermingled due to the rare combination of acceptance of ideas by the user and the craftsman. As a result the combination discovered and expressed by the craftsman by combining cultural nuances has heightened the quality and workmanship of these details. As a result, the unique stylistic expression of Gujarat has made architecture of Gujarat unique. Its rich wooden architecture is hardly documented and researched. Government of Gujarat’s Gazette on woodcarving was an authentic source of reference on the subject, however, it is outdated and is out of print since years. Haveli was next attempt at documenting the vernacular dwelling type of Gujarat. Balkrishna Doshi Architect Dean Emritus C.E.P.T The following pages explores in microscopic detail our rich heritage in the form of regional arts and crafts and will provide an inspiration to architects and designers in creating better built environment. How do we add this spiritualising attitude to our present day life? How do we create several counterpoints to create a dynamic life, so much part of our heritage and culture. How can we constantly experience the ‘smelling of flowers’ through observing our present day construction techniques as well as detailing? And most important of all, how can we create homes out of houses and shelters. Can we weave them as intricately and beautifully as all traditional domestic architecture? It is this that this document tries to address. message in today’s context that of celebration of life. The present research is done by Jay Thakkar of the School of Interior Design, C.E.P.T done as a prerequisite for his final year thesis under the guidance of Director Prof. Krishna Shastri. This book is the most comprehensive reference source on the art of wood carving of traditional houses of Gujarat. It demonstrates that such craftsmanship visible in public architecture is not only restricted to public domain but is even further heightened in domestic architecture of the havelis and personal homes. And it is here that art, craft, technology, connects to daily life and living. It is through the daily experience of the detailing of the craftsmanship that the individual’s sensibility are heightened. Because of such experiences, this architecture has influenced Gujarat’s crafts, music, food habits, clothing styles, etc.; colour, texture, surface modulation, formal expressions are all part of this experience. i , like a wanderer, travelled through those “cities of cities”.... beholden histories... dramatic encounters... meandering lanes... cultural expressions... mass beautification... blinding heat... dying values... inherited hospitality... timeless structures... revealing forms... tectonic endeavours... curious eyes... projecting symbols... addictive solitude... enchanting surfaces... chaotic order... predictable acts... parallel ends... fake pretensions... stagnant movements... conscious arrogance... organic evolution... revolutionary insights... aimless errands... perplexed visions... endless discoveries... .....all – a part of an inquiry. inquisite mind... An inquiry into: ...a process which made mass communication possible. ...a process that expressed religious & cultural phenomenons. ...a process of embellishment – a social desire. a process – a medium: Wood Carving austere calmness... longing oblivion... monotonous blabberings... burning feet... exhilerated thoughts... hidden truths... stinking alleys... territorial invasions... stale empathies... unanswered questions... inner search... relative references... note for transliteration and terminologies introduction - 1 traditional houses – a brief overview - 2 Part I 1. history of ancient wood carving - 10 2. historical aspect of wood carving in Gujarat -15 3. craftsmen of ancient India - 27 4. trade Guilds (nigama, shreñis) - 29 Co n t e n t s artisans of Gujarat classical texts related to wood carving Part II 5. tools (upakarñas) - 35 6. techniques - 39 a. relief carving technique b. undercutting technique c. incised carving technique d. Sculpturesque carving technique e. pierced carving technique wood – a technical overview Part III 7. ornamentation (alamkara, mandana) - 49 8. motifs - 55 • figural motifs • natural motifs • geometric motifs 9. pattern - 73 9.1. bands (patti, pattika) (one dimensional infinite patterns) - 75 9.2. santeens (two dimensional infinite patterns) - 91 • organic santeeens • geometric santeens 10. organising principles - 103 a. translation b. rotation c. reflection d. glide reflection 11. elements - 107 pattern as a factor in perception Part IV 12. ornaments as symbols ( pratika) - 141 13. styles (riti) - 147 • phase 1. Mid 16th to late 17th century (from 275 to 425 years) • phase 2. Late 17th to early 19th century (from 150 to 275 years) • phase 3. 19th to early 20th century (last 150 years) a. composite style b. eclectic style c. art deco • elements • patterns • motifs 14. nexus - 179 continuity of prehistoric devices a. the tree and its attendant genii b. cone & flower pattern c. mythical composite beast – gajvyala d. lotus e. leaf & dart motif swastika spiral Part V 15. transformations... a socio-cultural phenomena - 201 Appendix appendix – chip carving - 215 glossary - 216 sources of illustrations - 220 illustration acknowledgments - 221 bibliography - 222 V IX I Navi mehta ni pol, Dariapur, Ahmedabad Hajira ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad Dhal ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad VI X Dhal ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad II Kuavali pol, Shahpur, Ahmedabad Saudagar ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad VII XI Navi Vohra vas, Sidhpur III Pakhali ni pol, Raipur, Ahmedabad Chipa pol, Dariapur, Ahmedabad IV VIII XII Koth ni pol, Raipur, Ahmedabad Chandaria, Patan Dhal ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad introduction introduction Transcending back in time while enquiring upon the roots of historical aesthetics, one recognizes the inherent beauty in the work of the ‘masters of the past’. They thoroughly understood the fundamental principles within their surroundings and nature, and transformed them into a ‘physical reality’ - a reverential mirror reflecting the plethora of customs, enigmatic rituals, deep-rooted dogmas and the ubiquitous belief-systems of society. This was accomplished by the process of creating indigenous art and architectural forms - conceived in totality and in coherence with the cultural ethos. This was carried out collectively at a prodigious scale over generations. It generated culture-specific architecture - a repository of social and technological practices, integrated eco-solutions and value teachings. Its tangible evidences and precepts are still in existence and are presented in a detailed manner in this book. Naqsh – an epitome, presents a thorough study on architecture – the ‘wooden traditional houses of Gujarat’ by focusing on the process –‘wood carving’ in reference to its aesthetics – ‘Gujarati ornamentation’. Wooden architecture in Gujarat evolved organically portraying a complex picture of various lifestyles leaving behind an eloquent history demonstrating the elegance of prevalent cultures taking shape under the influences of different rulers and religion. From the creation of grand palaces and temples to the formation of the local dwellings, wooden architecture displayed itself as a common denominator used effectively for different purposes. This is where wood carving as a unique cultural entity had its origin. The traditional art of wood carving of Gujarat encompassed in itself - the historical profiles, cultural varieties, mythological fables, religious beliefs, social sensitivities, inherited tradition, proficient techniques, man’s interpretation and expression of nature and much much more. Elemental and eternal wood carving through newer forms and applications has carved a niche for its intrinsic versatility and value as one of the major art forms of Gujarat. This traditional art flourished in magnitude mainly the urban centres of Gujarat, where it became an integral part of the life of people of Gujarat. Among these there existed a community solely dedicated to artistic pursuits. These were the master builders and skilled craftsmen having the grace and the magic to create, express and depict the essence of nature, society or religion into awe inspiring forms. Therein lies the birth and the formation of the wide and spectacular ornamentation brought about by the wood carvers of Gujarat. Defying the phenomenon of individuality, though created by the individuals and driven by the intangible forces of culture, this visually enchanting art is a projection of society, which was made possible through the repertory of vast ornamental forms. Encountering time, these forms underwent subtle change and are silent witnesses to the history. This book explores and analyzes this forms and designs to understand and investigate the relationship between art, artist and society. Introducing this book briefly, it start with the evolution of wood carving, a description of craftsmen and their guilds, their prevalent tools and their practiced techniques. This is followed by detailed documentation and compilation on ornaments, motifs, patterns and elements. The next portion is a thoroughly investigated section dealing with symbolism, influences of various cultures and times generating unique styles and is followed by the similarities/semblance observed in this art form with various other arts of the world throughout the ages. The last section is a brief overview, interpretation and discussion on the various factors, which generated major transformation in this art. Naqsh is a humble tribute to the traditional art of wood carving of Gujarat and if at all the praise be sung then it seeks to honour those who had excelled in their art and left behind for us a vast cultural treasure. 2 traditional house traditional house (Gujarati house) The wooden traditional houses of Gujarat – an urban phenomenon – conforms to a general character in their organisation and articulation – i.e. narrow frontage representing composite wooden facade and sharing of common walls on longer sides; defined spatial components; bonding-timber construction; and densely articulated within confined settlement pattern known as pols – an empirically evolved labyrinths [2.I-IV]. These characteristics were the product of cultural pattern of time, caste division, male-female equation, exigences of joint family, social, and religious mores as well as contingent to climatic and structural requirement. The primary spaces of the house were identified by particular names; not in conjunction with their allocated functions. Proceeding from the street-to-house level, the entrance is defined by a narrow raised plinth with steps known as otla or otta – a prelude to the threshold of the house known as umro . Otla – a communication zone between outsider and the house residents – encompasses a row of columns supporting the wooden facade which is worked out in accordance with the length of wooden member is varied in terms of its treatment and its width subjected to the status of the owner. Its elemental nature was highlighted by its carving which made it ornate and exquisite in beauty – as an image builder for the house. The otla leads to a buffer space mainly used as reception room and thereby nominated as baithak , which was directly associated to the open-to-sky interior courtyard known as chowk – a nodal point linking all the spaces together. The interior facade flanking the chowk were richly carved like the frontal facade, befitting the main centre of the house. The chowk was attached to the rasodun (kitchen), paniyaro (place for storing drinking water), and the puja (prayer room) – all three being considered as sacred spaces. The chowk , therefore apart from acting as transitional and functional focus, also represented the religious centre of the dwelling. Parsal was a semi-open space connecting chowk and the living areas like ordo or ordoo , which was the last room, furthermost from the street and thus the most private room. They open in the chhindi (a narrow rear streets) by the means of small windows that facilitated cross ventilation. The function of these rooms were for both storage and sleeping. The need for privacy in the business transaction (mainly in North Gujarat) led to the development of divankhanu , on the upper floor, which ultimately became sign of aristocratic and symbolized high status and wealth of the owner. The roof of these kind of houses were invariably sloping covered with naliyas (clay tiles), but some areas were also left flat (known as agasi ) and are used for sleeping on summer nights and also for several domestic activities. Dhal ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad Pakhali ni pol, Raipur, Ahmedabad 2.I 2.II 2.III 2.IV View of pols Koth ni pol, Raipur, Ahmedabad Nagar vado, Patan 3 Raja stha n Pa kis ta n Palanpur RANN OF KUTCH Radhanpur Khavda Santalpur Patan Sidhpur Rapar Nakhatrana Bhuj Anjar Mandvi Mundra Morbi GULF OF KUTCH Limbdi Sayla Jamnagar Rajkot Jasdan Bhavnagar Porbandar Junagadh Savarkundla Keshod Rajula Amreli Chotila Bhachau Mehsana Himatnagar Ahmedabad Gujarat Muli Surendranagar Khambhat Kapadvanj Umreth Vaso Godhra Baroda GULF OF CAMBAY Sankheda Bharuch Surat Navsari Ahwa India Lakha patel ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad Haja patel ni pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad Dwarkadhish ni haveli, Raipur, Ahmedabad 3.I 3.II Ma ha Daman (Goa, Daman, Diu) ras Diu (Goa, Daman, Diu) htr a Madhya p ra d e s h Ar ab ian se a 3.III 6 roof ( chaidya ) lamberequins spandrel cypress column ( sarw-andam sutun ) arch ( taq ) second floor bracket ( kakasasana madal ) window ( vatayana ) second floor column ( kakasasana stambh ) joist beam entablature baluster panel masonry wall beam head ( bharotiyu ) patta beam ( mobh ) todla /tolla column head ( shara, shirsa, sharu ) bracket ( madal ) column ( stambh ) threshold ( umbaro ) lintel ( uttaranga ) door frame ( dvara sakha ) base ( pada ) door ( dvara ) Wall section Part front elevation Detail of a traditional house 7 ceiling ( vitana ) Dwarkadhish ni haveli, Raipur, Ahmedabad patta spanning member ( bharot ) beam (mobh ) beam head ( bharotiyu, sundhya ) knobs ( lumbika, tundika ) connecting member ( nirvyuh ) falna column capital ( bharni ) pichcha kalika beejoru bracket ( madal ) bharanu kanda shaft ( stambh ) 7.I 7.I,II. Detail of bracket system and column. Nagar vado, Patan wooden plate ( indhoni ) base ( kumbhi ) 7.II Typical bracket junction and column Visual nomenclature 46 This is one of the pivotal section of this research, as it not only provides a thorough information regarding ornaments (motifs, patterns, finite designs and symbols), produced through wood carving but also deals briefly with their organising principles (i.e. taxonomical categorization) and the perceptive factor regarding ‘patterns’. The frequently observed ornaments are discussed and documented under the relevant title heads providing an open-ended base for further additions. The discussion is carried to the description of traditional elements of wooden dwellings of Gujarat focusing on the types of ornaments employed. 47 PART iii 48 48.I 48.I. Balcony-window. This element is very conventional in the region of North Gujarat. Its edge is treated with the parrot motif – a specific feature of Hindu-Jaina style. The entablature is carved with jagged motif alternating with drop patterns. Chaudhri ni Sheri, Pofadia Vado, Patan Ornamentation 7 Ornamentation (alamkara, mandana alamkara, mandana) The idea of ornamentation germinated from the basic urge of an individual to embellish his surroundings wherein nature and socio-cultural environment played a significant role. In India since ancient times, ornamentation on architecture and interiors as well as on domestic artifacts had been a very common phenomenon strongly associated with physical and metaphysical value system.1 The Indian artisan believed that the “true beauty in ornamentation results from the repose which the mind experiences when – the eye, the intellect and the affections are satisfied due to the absence of any wants.” 2 The evolution of ‘Gujarati ornamentation’ as produced by wood carving was governed by socio-religious principles along with the desires of wealthy Gujaratis to decorate their residences and personal belongings. Three main factors affected the placement of carving on the domestic built form. The first was the practical consideration; “…those parts like beams which were bulky and difficult to hoist were generally left uncarved because they could have been damaged in the process of hoisting them. If some ornamentation was desired, this was applied to the beams in the form of thin carved wooden strips fixed by nails. The second factor was governed by the need of display. Those parts of the building like the frontage, the courtyard [49.I], the parsal and the divankhanu, which formed the backdrop to social activities were always ornamented to a greater or a lesser degree [refer 14.I, 31.I, 43.I, 45.I, 48.I]. Parts strictly for the private use, such as the ordo, the kitchen, the water room or those meant for sundry work, such as the front of khadki room were never embellished with carvings [49.II].” 3 Further, the quantitative and qualitative 1. “Indian classical sense of ‘aesthetics’ defined the functions of expression which indicated the meaning an ornament could have. They were: (1) Abhidha (conventional meaning) - of purely functional and informative value, (2) Tatpariya (contextual meaning) - of reference value, (3) Lakshana (particularised meaning) - of classified value, (4) Dhvani (suggested meaning) - of symbolic value. Bakshi Kadambari, Interpretation of Ornamentation in Indian Architectural History, unpublished thesis, CEPT Library, 1985. 2. Jones Owen, Grammar of Ornament, Omega Books, London, 1986. 3. Pramar V. S. Haveli: Wooden Houses and Mansions of Gujarat, p.229, Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd., Ahmedabad, 1989. 49.II. Outer view of ordo wall. It shows barely any carving except on some parts of doors and windows (mainly lintel). Kameshwar ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 49 aspects of ornamentation were based on issues like the socio-economic status of the owner in the society. The third factor revolves around the symbolic aspect of ornamentation, which is dealt in detail, later. Divetia Haveli, Sankdi Sheri, Ahmedabad 49.I 49.I. Courtyard (chowk The courtyard being the prime space in the Gujarati house to entertain chowk). chowk guests was also ornamented, but not as richly as the facade. 49.II 50 50.I 50.I. Facade at first floor level. It is carved in an exceptionally beautiful manner. The vertical wooden planks are carved in low relief carving and thereby treating the surface in a subtle manner. The balcony-window with its trellised pattern and dancers (nartaki) on the edge enchant the viewer. The Gujarati carvers followed certain inherent principles of the Indian style of ornamentation. The basic principle followed while ornamenting the built form was “to ornament construction; never to construct ornamentation.” In Gujarati wood carving, not only does the ornamentation arise naturally from the construction but the constructive idea is also carried out in every detail of ornamentation of the surface. The prominent characteristic in Gujarati ornamentation is perhaps the continuity and plenitude of ornamentation which usually fills up the surface to be decorated with a profusion of ornaments (abharna) either exactly alike or of similar nature. Hence the design is created by the repetition of the same objects or forms. It was remarkable, for the elegant outline defining the form and for the judicious treatment of the surface decoration. Every ornament (abharna) worked towards developing a general form, which upon being divided by the lines, formed interstices that were enriched with secondary ornamentation. The details never interfered with the general form and there was no excrescence or superfluous decoration. One finds that nothing was added without purpose, nor could anything be removed without disadvantage. All lines grew out of each other in gradual sinuosity and everything was connected to the common root. When the carving is viewed from a distance, the main lines strike the eye; as one approaches nearer, the details come into composition; on a closer inspection, one further observes the marvelous details on the carved surface of the decorative form [51.A,B,C]. Lakha Patel ni Pol, Sankdi Sheri, Ahmedabad 51 a 51.I 51.I. Facade. This kind of surface ornamentation indicates the second step in the evolution of the facade types of Gujarati house. The conventionally observed protruding joist members, which were carved in the form of elephant heads (gajamunda) are replaced by a horizontal wooden plank and the vertical wooden planks (carved as jalis) are substituted by metal grills. 51.B. Detail a. The kanda shows mosque-lamp motif; though profused with secondary ornaments, the general form is clearly visible. It shows peacocks carved in its nooks – which was the legacy of Hindu-Jaina style. 51.C. Detail b. The enlarged view of the carved surface shows treatment of the outer lines and the ground. Note the detail on the torso of peacock. b 51.A 51.A. Typical Gujarati column. Column (stambha stambha) stambha It is one of the most important element of a Gujarati house in terms of structure as well as ornamentation. 51.B 51.C Ratan Pol, Ahmedabad 52 From the study of the historical aspects and the existing examples of wood carving, it is evident that the earlier phase constituted, mainly of subjects treated in a ‘realistic’4 manner producing a ‘pictorial’ kind of carving; followed by a later phase depicting much of ‘conventional’ 5 and the ‘formalized’ 6 treatment. Thus, what was once pictorial work, in course of successive reproductions through the expanse of time and also being subjected to various socio-cultural influences, had become ‘quasi-representational’ 7 work – a ‘short hand’ version – that served the original purpose by preserving the original meaning – aesthetic as well as symbolic – in graphical form. All these forms of treatment were in response to the technical constraints of the material and the type of the tools used in wood carving. In any ornamentation, “when redundant growth has been drastically cleared away, it is found that the fundamental material of which all ornaments are composed, no matter how elaborate they appear, can be resolved into two main types. The first includes all elements [decorative form] however varied in size and shape they may be, that come under the definition of an ‘isolated unit’,8 either plain or richly ornamented around which, a boundary can be drawn. The characteristic units of the second type which are equally subjected to infinite variation in matter of details are continuous, always extending either directly or by devious paths across the field from one margin to another” 9 and thereby can conceptually extend to infinity. These factors stand true for Gujarati ornamentation also. The former type of ornament is referred here as ‘motif’ and the latter type as ‘pattern’. Gujarati ornamentation consists of rich vocabulary of motifs and patterns, which along with other devices like ‘elements’ complete a group to be called as a ‘class of phenomena’. The inclusion of the type – ‘elements’– within the ‘class of phenomena’ becomes necessary because the use of the type of ornaments as well as its occurrence (frequent or rare) were many times governed by the element (and its parts) on which it was to be applied. Here, the study of elements purely deals with its carvings and does not take into consideration its evolution or its articulation within the wooden architecture of Gujarat. The analysis of ‘class of phenomena’ appearing in the field of art, architecture and interiors, in a particular time and space helps in identifying the associations and inter-relations between similar or different kinds of components, thereby helping us to understand the similarities of cultures and their developmental issues. However, this research does not address such complex issues, instead it solely deals with representation of the ‘class of phenomena,’ possibly in a complete manner. 52.I Panchbhai ni Pol, Dariapur, Ahmedabad 52.I. Traditional Gujarati house. The house is renovated recently, keeping the ground floor and the structural wooden members intact. The use of the masonry wall on the first floor instead of wooden panels is probably a later additon. 53 Dhal ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad The ‘class of phenomena’ perfected by Gujarati artisans – in ancient and medieval times – intent upon producing the greatest ornamental effect by the most direct means possible; became in course of time, part of the traditional apparatus well known to every generation. Among various causes that helped in the continuity of the ‘class of phenomena,’ attributes like their communication of information and mystical depictions were very important. That is why we find the persistence of archaic decorative forms endowed with mystic paraphernalia, right from ancient times. Another important aspect that comes to surface while dealing with motifs and patterns related to the ornamentation of the flora family, is that many ‘types’ of ornaments can be identified with certainty but a closer look shows that there exist many unidentified hybrid varieties. These hybrid varieties are so distinct from its natural prototypes that we have to include such artificial floras under the ‘palmette’10 section. Palmettes were also greatly perfected by Gujarati artisans in medieval times, by partly controlled and unrestrained factors such as unconscious variation, decay, mimetic instincts11 and the deliberate adaptation to new uses, subordinated by various cultural, religious and regional influences. In this subject, we will first be dealing with motifs and patterns, followed by few aspects of its organizing principles; and later on we shall briefly discuss the elements of a traditional Gujarati house with emphasis on its carving. 4. The term ‘realistic’ or ‘realism’ refers to the portrayal of subjects as they are really thought or perceived to be, without idealization or distortion with respect to technical constraints of wood. 5. Jones Owen puts forward the doctrine of conventionalism: “Flowers or other natural objects should be used as ornament, but their conventional representation should be sufficiently suggestive to convey the intended image to the mind without destroying the unity of the object they are employed to decorate.”, Stuart Durant, Ornament, p.26, Mc. Donald, London, 1986. 6. Formalized treatment refers to carving depicting subjects in graphical or symbolic manner; but Gujarati ornamentation does not depict much of purely formalized work. 7. Some use the term ‘representational’ synonymously with the term ‘realistic’, defining it as representing the subject as closely as possible but here ‘quasi-representational’ carving commonly refers to ornamentation that represents subjects in a recognizable form. 8. “Isolated devices (or units) of complicated structure are very ancient inventions. Their elaboration was one of the first experiments in design undertaken by pre-historic mankind.”, Christie Archibald, Pattern Design, p.104. 9. Ibid.8, p.66. 10. The palmette must be originally a formal representation of some cultplant; an inheritance from information-giving-art and they were accepted into Gujarati ornamentation, may be, because of its resemblance to some existing ornaments or symmetries in its symbolic content. As Mr.Christie has pointed out: “There are two important subsections of the typical palmette. The first, the ‘enclosed palmette’ and the second, the ‘split palmette’... In quite early times the palmette showed a tendency to divide in halves, resulting into the split unit which had the remarkable career as an independent unit.”, ibid 8, p.20. 11. “Mimetic instincts makes the craftsman aware of a void in his work when some change in technique modifies or renders obsolete an important feature and immediately points out how the vacancy may be filled in strict accordance with precedent.... Mimicry explains many obscure problems in the life-histories of designs. It perpetuates and accounts for many strange anomalies, from which art has never been able to wholly free itself... In some measure, mimicry would seem to have an evolutionary use, by continuing the semblance of obsolete structural technique; it sought to smoothen the way for revolutionary progress with new materials and ways of working.”, ibid. 8, p.9. 53.I 53.I. Traditional Gujarati house. The entablature with many layers and absence of gajamunda (elephant head) band indicates the process of change in the style and the structure of this Gujarati house. 54 54.A. Balustrade panel on facade. It shows bid-majnun motif (weeping-willow motif) in the centre flanked by parrots. Here the stem of the motif is stylised and it evolves from a kalasa (pot). The sides depict the ihamriga motif with leafy stems emerging from his mouth. The border is treated with guilloche pattern. 54.A Finite designs of geometrical type Each of the designs exhibits a flower at centre with different designs (geometric and scroll work) around it. 54.B. The intervening tendrils in this finite geometric design is a result of the influence of textile art prevalent in Gujarat. 54.C 54.B 6 54.C. It is a chip carved design exhibiting fine workmanship. This design exhibits a radial symmetry operation. 1 5 54.D.1-6. These designs are the result of the influence of Mughal art. They are probably borrowed from stone monuments of Gujarat. 2 3 4 54.I. Design on entrance door panel. A perfectly composed radial design formed by growing bud (kalika) pattern. Doshiwada ni Pol, Ahmedabad 54.I 8 motifs motifs* Floral finite designs (gulma gulma) gulma All of them show the kalasa with flowering plants; they exhibit bilateral symmetry. 14 55 Motifs are isolated devices – symmetrical12 or asymmetrical,13 simple or complex in nature. Motifs when used in a repetitive manner to produce design, conceptually extending to infinity, forms a ‘pattern’ where it is also called as a ‘unit’ or ‘fundamental region’. Motifs when used singularly or in a cluster form in a simple or ornate manner, produces a design around which a boundary can be drawn and is finite in extent. Such bounded designs are known as ‘finite designs’, which are of two kinds; ‘planar finite design’ [54.I,A-D, 55.I,A-D], where carving is restricted to two dimensional planes (e.g. ceilings, balustrades, kakasasana stambha, etc.) and ‘finite design in round’ [42.I, 45.II], where the ornament is embodied on three dimensional surfaces (e.g. brackets, struts). The motifs found in Gujarati ornamentation are more pictographic, which can be divided into: figural, natural and geometrical motifs. Doshiwada ni Pol, Ahmedabad 55.A. It exhibits the plants bearing grapes and leaves. 55.A 55.B. The stylised stem with stylised leaves emerges from the kalasa. 55.I 55.B 55.I. Asymmetrical finite design on facade panel. The parrot and the branches (terminating in a flower and a bunch of leaves) are carved in relief style. 55.C. The branches spring from a straight stalk emerging from the kalasa flanked by parrots; the peacock motif is carved on the top. * Motifs dealt in this subject are two as well as three dimensional units. The former is the unit restricted to planar surface while the latter types are solid ornaments of many kinds (decorated objects). 12. Symmetrical motifs can be classified into: motifs having bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry, or both. Bilateral symmetry is that of a form (finite), divisible into similar halves by either of the two planes passing at a right angle. Radial symmetry is divisible into equal symmetrical portions by any of the three or more planes passing through its axis; it follows only two symmetry motions; mirror reflection and rotation. 13. Asymmetrical motifs represent the most dynamic symmetry group. It repeats only under operation of full 360° rotation (such a rotation makes the design circumlocutionary). 14. “Finite designs: These are designs which admit no translation or glide reflections and hence are not called ‘patterns’. However they may admit one or both of the other symmetries, rotation and mirror reflection”, Washburn Dorothy and Crowe Donand, Symmetries of Culture: Theory and Practise of Plane Pattern Analysis, p.247, University of Washington Press, Seattle and London, 1992. 55.D. The stem growing in ogee manner encompasses the peacock motif. 55.C 55.D 56 Peacock (morli motifs morli) morli This single subject - peacock - had gained a favourable position in Gujarati ornamentation. As observed, peacock motifs are found in various types and various postures subjected to different cultural dominations. F i g u r a l m o t i f s [ illus. on pg. 56-68] Figural motifs can be broadly categorized into six types. Here however, we do not aim at describing them at great length but only to the extent that they help us in forming the complete picture of this ‘type’. The categorization is based on their frequent occurrences within Gujarati ornamentation. The first category constitutes of the subjects like birds and animals. The birds, most commonly depicted by Gujarati carvers are peacocks (morli),15 parrots (popat), and swans (hamsa). The peacock has been the most popular theme of expression in wood carving, symbolizing beauty in all its aspect [56.A-F, 57.I,A-T ]. It has been depicted in a variety of ways ranging from realistic to conventional to formalist type and also in various postures. “The elaboration of protruding joist ends, pendants, brackets (madal), door frames (dvarasakha), column capitals (bharani) with the peacock (morli) motif had been the delight of Gujarati carvers.”16 The parrot (popat) – common among domestic birds of Gujarat – has also acquired popularity among the ornamentation of built products for every stratum of society [58.I-V, 59.A-N]. Both these motifs were a frequent 56.A 56.A,B. These motifs are treated in a delicate manner as a result of Mughal influences. 56.B subject of decoration for the artisans in villages as well as urban centers.17 The depiction of swans (hamsa) with muktmala (string of pearls) was a standard feature in temple ornamentation; but could not gain much popularity in decoration of Gujarati houses [59.O,P]. 15. “The peacock was a dynamic symbol for the Mauryan empire and was also considered as a sacred bird by the Greeks.”, Oak Nikita, Origin and Development of Wood Work in Gujarat, unpublished thesis, CEPT Library. “The peacock is also a popular motif in Islamic art. During the Hoysala period, it was greatly in demand.”, Morwanchikar R.S. Wood Work in Western India, p.105. Puja Publishers, Delhi, 1994. “The peacock has also played an important role in Sufi iconography.”, Bakhtiar Lateh, Sufi: Expressions of the Magic Quest, p.74, Thames and Hudson, London, 1976. 16. Trivedi R. K. Census of India, Vol.V, Part.VII, A(2), Wood Carving in Gujarat, p.55. 17. The Gujaratis are bird lovers. The depiction of birds in varied forms and the ‘Chabutaras’ are its testimony. 56.C-F. These are ‘heraldic’ designs showing ornate trees with peacocks on its sides. This kind of composition might have had a magico-ritual meaning in earlier times but later on, their use was purely for visual delight. 56.C 56.D 56.E 56.F 57 Doshiwada ni Pol, Ahmedabad 57.A 57.B 57.C 57.D 57.I 57.I. First floor vertical panel. Peacock - India’s National bird and one of the most featured motif of the Gujarati carver is depicted in a gracious manner. 57.E 57.F 57.G 57.Q 57.H 57.I 57.R 57.J 57.K 57.L 57.S 57.M 57.N 57.T 57.Q-T. These types exhibit the design, where two peacocks face each other; such types of motifs are the product of the Maratha influence (especially Paithani style). 57.O 57.P 58 58.II Akasheth Kuva ni Pol, Kahdia, Ahmedabad 58.II. Hole in the rear wall. It is also demarcated with the parrot motif made in plaster – an expression given to the niche for the bird to reside. 58.III. Parrots in niche. It is a common sight to find parrots staying in the holes made in the wall of traditional houses especially for small birds. 58.I 58.V. Finite design on curved balustrade. Here the design is initially carved on a flat surface and then the rest of the panel is given a curvaceous form. It shows ornate branches emerging on one side from the beak of the peacock and on the other side from the parrot; they both reside on a pedestal carved with buds. Note the bead pattern at the base of the parrot motif on right. Jada Bhagat ni Pol, Dariapur, Ahmedabad Haribhakti ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 58.III 58.I. Detail of vertical panel. The parrot motifs are interspersed with ogee band with a floret at a junction. The panel is carved in a relief manner. Fatasa Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 58.IV. Carving on door panel. This low relief carving shows parrots perched on a plant motif emerging from a pot. Here the leaves and the wings are treated in a serrated manner, which reveals its colonial influence. 58.IV 58.V Haribhakti ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 59 Parrot motifs The parrot was also one of the preferred motifs of Gujarati carvers. 59.M 59.A 59.B 59.N 59.C 59.M,N. These are ‘heraldic’ designs showing a bedecked tree flanked by parrots. 59.D 59.E 59.F 59.G 59.H 59.O 59.I 59.J 59.O,P. Swan (hamsa with hamsa) hamsa m u k t a m a l a (string of pearls). This type of motif was mainly found in the temple interiors. 59.K 59.L 59.P 60 Animals – both wild and domestic – were the subjects of ornamentation for wood carvers. Animals such as elephants (gaja, kunjara, hathi), lion (sinha), horses (asva), deer (mriga), fish (matsya), tortoises (kurma), alligators, cows and bullocks were in use; their representation was indigenous in its character [60.I]. The depiction of an elephant [60.B-E] on lintel (in its original form) as well as the elephant head (gajamunda, sundhiyu) motif on the entablatures of Gujarati house was most common [61.I]. Similarly, the lion (sinh) motif on balustrades and brackets (madal) was also common, while 60.I 60.I. Relief panels depicting carving of figural motifs. These panels are a part of the whole series of 8 horizontal panels depicting the marriage and renunciation of Neminatha – also known as Aristanemi – the 22 nd Jina. The story of Neminatha’s wedding is very popular in Jaina mythology because it epitomizes the tenet of non-violence, which is the quintessential philosophy and the moral precept of Jainism. the horse (asva) motif was carved mainly in a prancing posture as a wall peg, (locally known as ghodala) at the entrance or inside the parsal [60.II]. The use of deer (mrga) motif [60.A] was rarely seen while the motifs of fish (matsya), tortoises (kurma), cows and bullocks were mainly found in temple ornamentation and small furniture articles. Haveli in Vaso 60.B. Elephant motif on column shaft. It is a formal representation, carved in an incised manner by a rural carver 60.B 60.II ghodala 60.II. Horse pegs (ghodala Horse motif is carved in a prancing ghodala). posture – a symbol of demon scarer. It is carved in parsals of Gujarati houses; it is profusely carved with secondary enrichments, though not disturbing the form. The face is carved in low scale compared to the body proportion. 60.C. Elephant motif on a lintel of the door. It is carved with a bunch of flowers in its trunk to be offered to lord Ganesa. It shows the front profile of the head, which distorts the proportions of the subject. 60.C 60.D,E. Elephant motifs on door panels. These motifs are shown with the carriage on the top and thereby represented as vehicles for kings and royal personalities, themselves expressing royal insignia. 60.A 60.A. Deer (mrga motif. It was mainly found in temple mrga) mrga ornamentation and furniture elements (especially in carvings depicting narratives) but is rarely found on house facades. 60.D 60.E 61 Elephant (gaja motifs gaja) gaja The elephant in Gujarati ornamentation was always represented in side elevations as it was easy to draw and carve. 61.I. Entablature at first floor level. Carving of the projecting joist beams portraying elephant heads (gajamunda, sundhiyu) was very common in Gujarati houses. Here the elephant head is enthroned by the peacock motif and the flat surface is carved by the leaf & dart pattern and the caterpillar scroll. Haribhakti ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 61.I 62 Dhal ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 62.II 62.II 62.II. Mythical Kinnara Part winged horse - part human. It is carved Kinnara. out of the beam end and is highlighted with the bead pattern (gundika) and secondary florid ornaments. The human face shows sharp features with delicate rows of beads (gundika dhara) and huge earrings. The body of the horse is depicted in a stylised prancing posture. Haveli in Vaso 62.I 62.I. Gajvyala or Garsada This bracket on the first floor facade is carved in the form of a mythical creature composed of Garsada. part-elephant, part-tiger and part-bird. Its beauty is enhanced because of its sharp features and clear lines. Observe the rhizome emerging out of the elephant’s mouth and the pair of cone motifs branching from it. 62.III. Detail view of a carved bracket. It is one of the largest surviving Gajvyala bracket. The elephant’s head is enthroned with a lotus (padma), a human figure and a peacock, while its front side is adorned with cone motifs. Each of these objects would have had some symbolic meaning, which was lost with the passage of time. Note the treatment of the body with scales. Fatasa Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 62.III 63 Ajwa, Santalpur The second category constitutes of composite mythical beasts (ihamriga) or animated animal forms such as gajvyala or garsada (part-elephant, part-tiger, part-bird) [62.I,III], asvyala (part horse - part tiger), kinnara or kinnari or kinnara rupaka (part-horse, part-human) [62.II], savaja [145.I] and sinhvyala (part-lion, part-tiger). These are complex isolated devices (to be referred as finite designs) depicted individually, with or without floral decoration, mainly on brackets (madal) and struts of Gujarati houses. Among these, the gajvyala is the most commonly found motif [refer page 116,117]. It’s upright 63.III 63.II 63.I-III. Door panel design. These are the figures of krisna, gopi and a geometric design. The figures exhibit folk character in its carving style, where krisna is shown playing the flute, while gopi is carrying water in earthen pots. tail is that of the tiger; the thin waist also seems to be that of the tiger, while the upright ears belong to the horse and the legs are that of a bird. The mouth is that of an elephant with its unmistakable tusks and trunks; besides there are two wings supported on subsidiary four feathers. These kinds of complex isolated devices in earlier times were actually associated with magico-ritual beliefs. During later times, their representation inclined towards aesthetic outlook, yet exhibiting few of its symbolic gestures. The third category comprises Gods and Goddesses: Jina or Tirthankaras [63.A, refer 140.A], Sri Laksmi, Sri Ganesha (vinayaka) [63.B], including Sri Saraswati (rarely) are found mainly on the lintels of doors and windows and sometimes on struts. At times, we come across the depiction of local gods and goddesses, demonstrating regional influences [63.C]. 63.I Figures of Gods 63.A 63.A. Lord Mahavira He is seated in padmasana (a posture Mahavira. of meditation), flanked by fly-whisk bearers (camardharas). Such figures were found mainly on the elements of the facade such as lintel of the entrance door or window, column capital, entablature etc. 63.C 63.B 63.B. Sri Ganesa. Here the figure of Sri Ganesa is depicted in an unusual posture, where His feet touch those of the elephants. 63.C. Figure of a local god. Such figures originated as a result of local beliefs and regional enthralment. 64 64.I 64.I. Figure of a guardian on the entablature. The figure on the right represents pratihara with a stick in his hand – symbolically the weapon of defence. 64.III. Figure of a guardian on the facade. This pratihara is carved at the base of the first floor column. Observe carefully the bird perched on his weapon. Akasheth Kuva ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 64.II 64.II. Figure of pratihara (guardian) on the facade panel. Carved in an indigenous manner this guardian is shown with sword and shield as the weapons of defence. Its appearance is that of a warrior of the Rajput community, while the headgear shows the Maratha influence. 64.A 64.A. Pratihara (guardian) on the facade panel. This figure is from a very old house (nearly 250 years old) in Kaira. The style of the apparels, jewellery and weapons bear no external influences. Haribhakti ni Pol, Sankdi Sheri, Ahmedabad 64.C 64.C. P r a t i h a r a on facade bracket. This Rajput warrior was carved to the size of the bracket. His garments (kauseyas) and turban delineate the dominance of the Marathas. 64.B 64.B. Dvarpala at entrance door base. The figures of door guardians are always represented with stick as their guarding weapon. Such figures were customary on the door of house shrines (ghar daherasar). Kameshwar ni Pol, Khadia, Ahmedabad 64.III 65 Figures of guardians The figures of pratiharas, dvarapalas are found mainly on facades, brackets and lintels of entrance doors (grhdvara). The weapons in their hands symbolically suggest the social issue of security against thieves and evil forces of the society. 65.I. Figure of pratihara (guardian) at the base of the first floor column (kakasasana stambha kakasasana stambha). Standing in one leg posture, this figure is flanked by peacocks at its base. View the delightful design carved on the curved balustrade both sides. This is a typical entablature of a traditional Gujarati house where we observe caterpillar scroll, gajamunda band and the leaf & dart pattern. Jada Bhagat ni Pol, Dariapur, Ahmedabad 65.I The fourth category pertains to celestial beings like apsaras, vidyadharas, gandharvas and figures like pratiharas [64.I-II,A,C, 65.I], dvarpalas [64.B], cauri bearers or camardhara, attendant figures and dancers (nartaki). The apsaras are invariably shown as beautiful damsels (surasundaris) with grace and charm. Many times they are depicted without wings and in various poses – like carrying pitchers, playing numerous musical instruments [66.A-J], dancing, etc. Though carvers took great care in sculpting these figures on Gujarati houses, their work remain indigenous yet inferior in nature compared to those ornamented on temples. Vidyadharas are always represented like human beings. Vidyadharas and gandharvas are also shown carrying garlands (maladhara), lotuses, pitcher (kalasa), or playing musical instruments, etc. and are adorned similarly like apsaras, thereby causing difficulty in distinguishing them. 66 A C B D F E G H 66.A-J. Figures of apsaras (divine angels) playing musical instruments. These figures are the result of Mughal influences. Their apparels consist of sweeping pajjamas and coli (bodice). The katisutra (waist garment) is replaced by flying scarves. A. Apsara playing vina (lute). B. Apsara playing gungharas ( jingling bells tied in a string). C. Apsara playing sarangi. D. Apsara playing coiled srngi. E. Apsara playing harp. F. Apsara playing kartala. G. Apsara playing cymbals. H. Apsara playing dafli. I. Apsara playing long srngi. J. Apsara playing srngi (trumpet). I J 67 67.I. Detail view of a bracket. The base of the bracket is carved with a human figure in a kneeling position with a peacock sitting on his lap and the parrot on his shoulder. Note the cone motifs at the top of his head. Chhipa Pol, Dariapur, Ahmedabad 67.I 68 Symbols and object motifs These kinds of motifs were not used as means of ornamentation, but each of them contained some meaning and thereby their application was restricted to particular elements at specified places. 68.A. Kalasa (pot) or amrita kalasa (pot of nectar) 68.C. Wine-vase motif (surahi) 68.B. Stylised kalasa motif 68.D. Swastika 68.F. Nandyavarta 68.E. Sauvastika Doshiwada ni Pol, Ahmedabad Narrative figural motifs This category inevitably exists among all the schools of ornamentation, where the scenes from ordinary(or ideal) life or those from mythologies are depicted. 68.I. Door panel detail. The figure shows Krisna grazing a cow. 68.I Doshiwada ni Pol, Ahmedabad 68.J. Detail of front part of bracket. It illustrates a narrative – a scene from Mahabharata, where Bhima one of the pandavas, shakes the tree to bring down the rival kauravas. 68.J 68.II. Detail on a door panel. The motif represents god Hanuman carrying a mountain (a scene from Ramayana). 68.II The fifth category consists of objects and symbols (chinha). Representation of object motifs like pitcher (kalasa) [68.A.B] or pot of nectar (amrita kalasa) and in few cases, wine-vase motifs (surahi) [68.C] are depicted. The auspicious symbols (mangal chinha) such as swastika [68.D] and sauvastika [68.E], 68.G. Detail of a beam end. Woman between these two male figures has a bewildered expression. 68.I . Detail of a beam end. The figure of Krisna is carved, surrounded by animals. nandyavarta [68.F] (a variant of swastika), and 14 auspicious dreams of Mahavira [refer 142.D] are commonly found in Gujarati ornamentation. The sixth category comprises of narratives [68.G-J] – which includes events 68.G 68.H from the life of Tirthankara [refer 60.I, 140.A], scenes from krisna legends [68.I, refer 63.I,II], Mahabharata [68.J] and Ramayana [68.II]. Miscellaneous themes pertaining to secular subjects like war scenes, processions, maithuna scenes [68.H]18 etc. are also a part of it. 68.I 68.H. Detail on entablature. The figures in Maratha costumes are a form of domestic maithuna. The male figure plays a drum while the female holds a drinking cup. 18. “One rare type of carving must also be mentioned: The erotic couple showing entwined figures (Maithuna motif). Most of the time, the poses were modest, but in one house in Ahmedabad, an actual scene of intercourse is depicted in an obscure part of a rear wall. The reasons for such themes seems clear to promote fertility and to ward off evil.”, ibid. 3, p.84. 69 A. Chrysanthemum or marigold N a t u r a l m o t i f s [ illus. on pg. 69-71] The floral and foliated ornamentation, purely imaginative or closely imitating nature, used by Gujarati carvers can be categorized into four kinds: flower, plant, foliage and tree motifs. The representation of flora in Gujarati wood carving was more in the conventional and formalized types. We rarely find examples of a realistic imitation of nature. The selection of comparatively few natural forms from the luxuriant field of the botanical world was partly determined by the beauty of form and partly by the fact that they possess a symbolic meaning. As discussed earlier, only few kinds of natural motifs can be identified while the rest have to be placed under ‘palmette’ section [69.H-N]. E. Lotus (padma) D. Asiatic tulip C. Nargis or narcissus B. Sunflower (surajmukhi) Flower motifs Palmettes Artificial flora or possibly a hybrid version of a natural prototype must be originally a formal representation of some cult-plant, an inheritance from the informationgiving-arts. Palmettes were also treated in an ornate manner by Gujarati carvers. They are one of the ideal motifs for ornamentation purpose and as fillers, as they are easy to stencil and carve. F. Jasmine G. Champa The flower motifs19 [69.A-G] – common and identifiable – among Gujarati ornamentation are chrysanthemum (chrysanthemum coronarium) or marigold, sunflower (helianthus annus, surajmukhi), nargis or narcissus, asiatic tulip (scarcely), lotus (nelumbo nucifera, Indian water lily), jasmine (jasminum officinate), champa (michelia champaca) and bakula (mimusops elengi). Lotus (padma or paduma) is the most common motif in Gujarati ornamentation. It is shown in the form of a bud (padmakosa), half lotus (ardhapadma), upturned lotus (urdhvapadma) and a fully blown lotus (purnapadma). It is carved either singularly to form a lotus band (padma pattika) or with leaves and foliage. We also come across stylised flower motifs among wood carving adapted during the later phase. It is difficult to distinguish formalized flower motifs from each other and so they are placed under title heads like, ‘3-petalled flower’, ‘4-petalled flower’ (formalized champa), ‘5-petalled flower’ (formalized lotus), ‘6-petalled flower’ (formalized jasmine, nargis and tulip) and ‘many petalled flower’ (formalized chrysanthemum, sunflower and also lotus). For formalized or stylised flower motifs, sector,20 oval and ovum or ellipse act as a structural base for their development. 19. Flower motif are the units bearing radial symmetry. 20. Sector is the foundation of rosettes, a motif resembling an open rose or a lotus with petals arranged in a circle around the centre. H I J K L M N 70 The plant motif comprises of: the climbing creeper probably identified with 70.A.Vine creeper. Stylised leaves and bunch of grapes are shown branching out from the creeper. 70.A either vine (vitis vinifera) or ivy (hedera helix) stems21 [70.A] with their leaves and fruits like berries, sitafal, mangos (amralumbi) and pine cones (both resemble boteh-miri motif), or a bunch of grapes and rarely pomegranates. In their trailing growth, these two creepers retain in ornament, a marked natural characteristic, and their fruits; although formalized berries, sitafal or grapes Plant motifs Imitated from the nature, this type of motifs with the span of time became the creation of pure imagination and repetition. 70.B. Cypress motif (showing scale pattern). This type is used to produce bands unlike those found on first floor column (refer 143.A). 70.B are often indistinguishable from one another. Moreover the carving of foliage frequently ended up as palmettes.22 Another common plant is the cypress23 whose depiction is much conventionalized. It mainly appears on the first floor column (kakasasana stambha) [refer 143.A,II] and on panels of the facades of Gujarati houses [70.B]. One of the frequently observed plant motifs is the gol-henai 24 [70.C] and the bid-majnum 25 (weeping-willow motif) [70.D]. The former finite design is of a more conventional type and bears stylised florets with leaves (similar to a lancet), while the latter is more formalized with 70.C. Gol-henai motif. It exhibits florets emerging from a straight stalk. 70.C straight stalk and arched branches. A frequent observed finite design on front of a bracket (madal) was cone & flower (in vertical fashion) [70.E]. Such designs exhibit the use of a multi-petalled flowers represented peculiarly, while the cone is represented as simple cone (surmounted to a flower motif) [70.F-H], pine cone [70.I,J] or mango or boteh-miri motif 26 [70.K] but its execution however attains to rounding off. 70.D 70.I,J. Pine cone. It is represented in a stylised manner. These kinds of motifs are probably borrowed from the Islamic art. 70.F-H. Simple cone motifs. They represent different compositions of pairs of cone & flower. 70.D. Bid-majnun motif (weeping-willow motif). The arched branches full of small leaves springs from a straight stalk (or a stylised stem). 70 .H 70.I 70.K. Boteh-miri motif. Serrated leaf design (in shape of a mango motif). Gujarati carvers however, modified it by rounding its tip and thereby giving it a characteristic bent. 70.E. Cone & flower motif (in a vertical form). The cone is represented by a mango motif emerging from a flower arranged sequentially on a straight stalk (but wavy when viewed from sides). Such pairs (in reference to its depiction in numbers) signified a stage of spiritual development in acquiring control over the senses. The peacock crowned on the top expresses the state of ecstasy. 70.E 70.F 70.K 70.G 70.J 71 71.A 71.A. Herati motif. Lancet leaves are composed around a flower at an angle to the edge of the surface. Geometric motifs The geometric motif here refers to the motifs bearing geometrical form and simple shapes like squares, circles,30 triangles,31 diamonds (lozenge) and polygons (simple or complex), ovals, ellipses in original or in an overlapped manner. These shapes are used singularly or articulated in a particular ‘repeat’ order to create simple geometric patterns. Further, these geometric motifs (especially polygons) along with simple patterns are juxtaposed and repeated bearing complex mathematical rules to create primary or complex polygonal geometric patterns. Such kinds of complex designs were adapted during later phase, but they did not on appeared on large scale in Gujarati ornamentation. Reviewing the motifs in Gujarati ornamentation, it is apparent that Gujarati Among the foliage motifs, leaves of various plants and trees [71.B] such as vine, ivy, palm (mainly the leaves of the fan-palm), banyan, pipal, acanthus leaves (acanthus spinosus)27 [71.C,D] and lanceolate or lancet leaves are depicted in various ways with stem and tendril or with the scroll (vali). The style seems to be modified and altered by regional and cultural influences. Certain characteristic of the artificial foliage such as serrated edges can also be noticed at a closer inspection. Many times these leaves are composed around the flower in a typical manner; for example, two carved leaves (especially lancet leaves) enclosing a flower at an angle to the edge of the surface (ground). Such a unit is termed as the ‘herati ’ motif [71.A]. The tree motifs found in the Gujarati ornamentation are the banyan tree (vata or nyagrodha), palm tree – fan-palm and date-palm and pipal tree; among which the banyan and palm tree motif were very common. 21. “Vine and ivy in ancient times were sacred to Bacchus and represented a symbolic meaning of friendship.”, Meyer Fransz, Meyer’s Handbook of Ornament, p.51, Omega Books, London, Reprint version, 1987. 22. The execution of palmette, however attains the rounding off of its form (and its vertex), a process in general adopted by Gujarati carvers. 23. “The cypress plant [a typical Persian motif] symbolizes potential wholeness, for biologically it is a tree which contains the masculine and feminine principles within itself. It is a form which appears frequently in Muslim iconography known for its submission to the wind; it is this wind blown from, that it is often seen as the paisley motif.”, Bakhtair Lateh, Sufi: Expression of the Magic Quest, p.68, Thames and Hudson, London, 1976. 24. “Gol-henai motif: A plant called gul-henna or gol-hinai, from which henna is extracted is often used as a background in Abbasid designs. From a straight stalk come numerous parallel budding stems at an angle. The gol-henai is highly stylised, where the straight lines contrasted attractively with its exquisite flowers. The word ‘gol’ is an etymological variant of a Persian or Sanskrit word ‘gul ’ or ‘gol ’ meaning flower and that the motif represents stylized flower forms.”, Coen Luciano and Duncan Louise, The Oriental Rug, p.42, Harper and Row Publisher, New York, 1978. 25. “Weeping-willow (bid majnun) motif: It is an antique motif that originated as a rural design and has become a favorite of the cities in the 19-20th centuries. In its stylised form two branches arch away from the top of a tree trunk, with flowers or leaves suggested at the end of the stalks.”, ibid. 24, p.42. 26. “Boteh-miri motif: This is one of the several versions of the boteh or serrated leaf design which originated in India and was adopted throughout the orient [or perhaps derived from a palm flower, and may have evolved its characteristic bent point in more recent times]. The term boteh-miri comes from the Farsi (Persian) for ‘princely flower’. Experts differ on what the motif represents: a pine, a palm, a cluster of leaves or the sacred flame of Zarathustra.”, Gans-Reudin E. Indian Carpets, P.304, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984. 27. Acanthus leaf: This is a conventional ornament resembling the foliage of the acanthus plant. It is the most popular motif of Greek origin. The appearance of this motif can be sighted before the advent of the Britishers, hence it has been included in this section. This motif during colonialism was much in vogue (though in a distorted form). 28. Scroll is purely an artistic invention; the natural plant having no tendrils. Flowers and calices frequently occurring in door ornamentation of Gujarati houses are developed around such scrolls, composed to recall natural models. 29. “Herati motif : a Persian motif, thought to have originated in Herat.”, ibid.24. 29 28 carvers preferred figural and natural motifs rather than geometrical motifs. The geometrical designs never appeared in isolation but were always interspersed or juxtaposed with the other two kinds of motifs. 71.B 71.B. Different kinds of foliage motifs. Such motifs acted mainly as fillers but later on (during British reign) they were employed as main components in ornamentation. 71.C 71.D 71.C,D. Acanthus leaves. This kind of foliage was normally noticed in the places where colonial influences were dominant. Such motifs are usually carved on the frieze, cornices, column capitals and the edge of the stone base of columns. 30. By the reason of its divisibility, the circle is the base of all polygonal geometric patterns. 31. The triangle is not often used in polygonal geometry but the superimposed square at 45°- - and the isometric tessellation is often the source of the profuse variety of patterns.